Anatolian Seljuk State (1077-1308)

The Period of Kutalmışoğlu Süleyman Shah (1077-1086)

Tasked by Malik Shah with the conquest of Anatolia, Süleyman Shah quickly conquered all of Anatolia, including İznik, and established his state in 1077. Sultan Süleyman Shah, who ruled Anatolia under the auspices of the Great Seljuk Sultan in Rey, took advantage of his position within Byzantium to frequently interfere in its internal affairs and, as a matter of policy, support certain emperors in their struggles for the throne. Meanwhile, he defeated his brother Mansur's rebellion with the help of a force sent by Malik Shah under the command of Emir Porsuk. In 1085, he seized Antakya Castle in a sudden raid. However, the conquest of Antakya caused a rift between him and the Syrian Seljuk Sultan Tutuş. Sultan Tutuş and his ally Artuk Bey defeated Süleyman Shah near Aleppo. Süleyman Shah, heartbroken, committed suicide (1086).

While setting out on the Antakya campaign, Süleymanşâh left the administration of İznik to one of his commanders, Ebu'l-Qasim. After Süleymanşâh's death, Malikşâh, suspicious of Ebu'l-Qasim's independent actions, sent a detachment to Anatolia under the command of Porsuk and Emir Bozan. Although he sought his pardon, he was killed by Bozan (1092). Around the same time, Süleymanşâh's son, Kılıç Arslan, was released upon the death of Sultan Melikşâh and came to Anatolia to inherit his father's legacy (1092).

Kılıç Arslan I (1092-1107)

After Kılıç Arslan gained considerable strength in the Aegean region and eliminated Çakan Bey (Çaka Bey) (1097), he marched to Malatya and laid siege to it. However, upon hearing of the arrival of a large Crusader army in Anatolia, he arrived near İznik but withdrew to Anatolia in the face of the numerically superior Crusaders. Trying his luck again near Eskişehir, Kılıç Arslan harassed the Crusader army with guerrilla warfare until they reached Antakya. Despite suffering heavy losses, the Crusaders crossed Anatolia, capturing Antakya, Jerusalem, and Urfa, establishing kingdoms, counties, and princedoms there. Meanwhile, the Byzantines, following the Crusaders, succeeded in regaining control of Western Anatolia, the Black Sea, and the Mediterranean coast.

Sultan Kılıç Arslan I, with only Central Anatolia remaining in his hands, moved the capital to Konya. He then advanced on several cities in Southeastern Anatolia. Consequently, the Atabeg of Mosul, Çavlı, the Artuqid Il-Ghazi, and the Melik of Syria, Rıdvan, marched against Kılıç Arslan. Having lost the battle at the Habur River in Syria, Kılıç Arslan drowned while crossing the Habur River (1107). His son, Mes'ud, succeeded him, but his other brother, Shahinshah, did not recognize him. The struggle for the throne continued until 1116.

Sultan Mes'ud I (1116-1155)

Sultan Mes'ud was initially forced to recognize the sovereignty of Danishmend Ahmed Gazi. However, after his death in 1134, he began to act independently. He attempted to reestablish Seljuk rule in Anatolia. However, the renewed Crusade (the Second Crusade) thwarted this project. Sultan Mes'ud, who defeated the German forces under Conrad III at Ceyhan in 1147, also won a major victory by defeating the French army under Louis VII, first at Yalvaç and then at Kazkbeli in the Western Taurus Mountains. Sultan Mes'ud also captured the Armenian-dominated Maraş-Elbistan region and at one point managed to stop the Byzantine Emperor Manuel Komnenos, who had advanced as far as Konya. After his death, his son, Sultan Kılıç Arslan II, succeeded him.

Sultan Kılıç Arslan II (1155-1192)

In the early years of his reign, Sultan Kılıç Arslan struggled with his brothers, Danishmend Yağıbasan and Byzantine Emperor Manuel Komnenos. Taking advantage of Byzantium's preoccupation with the west, he achieved unity in Anatolia. Following the death of his greatest rival, Nureddin Mahmud Zengi (1174), he gained control of all of Anatolia except Western Anatolia and the Marmara Sea. Byzantine Emperor Manuel Komnenos mobilized with a large army to eliminate the threat posed by Kılıç Arslan. Sultan Kılıç Arslan II inflicted a crushing defeat on the Byzantine army at Yalvaç-Karamıkbeli in a battle known to Byzantine and European historians as the "Disaster of Myryekephalon." This great victory played a crucial role in the Turkification of Anatolia. From this date on, Byzantium could no longer pursue an offensive policy against the Turks. This victory opened Western Anatolia and the regions beyond Eskişehir to Turkish conquest. Turkish armies quickly captured numerous cities in the region extending to the Aegean Sea.

Towards the end of his reign, Sultan Kılıç Arslan divided his realm among his eleven sons, adhering to ancient Turkish customs. However, fierce fighting broke out among them. Meanwhile, the Third Crusade began, and Frederick Barbarossa entered Anatolia with a large army. However, the death of the German Emperor at the Silifke River saved the Anatolian Turks from another disaster. Kılıç Arslan died in 1192 while the country was embroiled in a struggle for the throne.

Ghiyaseddin Kaykhusraw I (1192-1211)

Ghiyaseddin Keyhüsrev I, who succeeded his father to the throne, sought aid from his brother Süleymanshah by going to Byzantium. However, he failed to receive the assistance he sought. Meanwhile, at the end of the Fourth Crusade, the Latins had captured Constantinople. Ghiyaseddin Keyhüsrev I thus crossed into Anatolia. Around the same time, upon his brother's death, the Seljuk emirs invited him to the throne. During his reign, he defeated Alexios III, Emperor of the Greek State of Pontus (Trabzon), and captured Antalya in 1207. He defeated the Armenian King Leo II. He prevented the Ayyubids from expanding into eastern and southeastern Anatolia. He was martyred in the Battle of Alaşehir against Laskaris, Emperor of İznik (1211).

İzzeddin Keykâvus I (1211-1220)

The most important event of the period was the capture of Sinop in 1214. Izzeddin Keykavus consolidated the Seljuk rule in Anatolia.

Alaaddin Keykubad I (1220-1237)

Alaaddin Keykubad, who ascended to the throne upon his brother's death, was one of the greatest Anatolian Seljuk Sultans. Sultan Alaaddin Keykubad, who largely achieved Turkish unity in Anatolia, captured Kolonoros Castle near Antalya and named it after himself (Alaiye, later Alanya). Sultan Alaaddin Keykubad sent a fleet with ships built in the shipyards of Sinop to Suğdak, a major trade center in Crimea, and captured it. The Kipchak realm recognized the Sultan's sovereignty (1226). The Armenian King was subjected to tribute. When Jalaluddin Khagan fled from Genghis Khan's armies and came to Anatolia, he engaged in war against his ambition to conquer Anatolia and defeated him at the Battle of Yassıçemen in 1230. Jalaluddin Khagan, who had fled, was killed near Van. He repaired the castles to secure his eastern borders. He reinforced the army with troops and ammunition. He established a large defensive chain in the east. He also sent an envoy to the Mongol Khan Ögedey and signed a treaty. Thus, he protected Anatolia from Mongol encroachment. He died of poisoning in 1237.

Ghiyaseddin Kaykhusraw II (1237-1246)

Ghiyaseddin II was an incompetent ruler. Initially influenced by one of his commanders, Saadeddin Köpek, he made many mistakes. One of these was the assassination of Kayır Khan, a Khwarezm Bey who had entered Seljuk service. This incident triggered a rebellion among the Khwarezm troops and caused considerable hardship for the state. Although Saadeddin Köpek was later killed, the subsequent Baba Ishak Rebellion (1239) severely shook the state. Bayju Noyan, the Mongol governor of Azerbaijan, closely followed events in Anatolia and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Seljuk army at Kösedağ in July 1243. This battle led to the collapse of the Anatolian Seljuk State.

The Collapse of the Anatolian Seljuk State

The rulers who succeeded Ghiyaseddin Kaykhusraw II were mere playthings in the hands of beys and commanders. In 1256, the Mongols, who were committing massacres in Anatolia, made an agreement with Vizier Mu'inuddin Suleiman Pervane to divide the state into two, with the Kızılırmak bordering the region. In 1261, the Karamanids revolted against Mongol oppression. In 1276, the Hatirids revolted again against the Mongols but were unsuccessful. Supporting this movement, the Turkish Mamluk Sultan of Egypt, Baybars, advanced as far as Kayseri, but failed to receive the support he sought from Anatolia. In 1277, Karamanid Mehmed Bey attempted to enthrone the Seljuk prince Alaaddin Siyavuş in Konya, but he was unsuccessful. This event is known in history as the "Mimri Incident."

13th century towards the end of the century, the Turkmen principalities in Anatolia began to declare their independence one by one.